Buddhism arose in ancient India from the sixth century to the fifth century B.C., developed through three stages of primitive Buddhism, tribal Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism, and was introduced to China in the Han and Han dynasties. Buddhism was gradually Sinicized in the course of a long history, and the Sinicization of Buddhism was not only the localization of Buddhist doctrines, but also the process of establishing Buddhism in China. The formation of Buddhist sects in China marks the completion of the Sinicization of Buddhism. Since then, Chinese Buddhism has become a form of Buddhism with Chinese cultural characteristics, and at the same time, it has further completed the process of sinicization.
1. The connotation and characteristics of the sinicization of Buddhism.
The sinicization of Buddhism is the embodiment of Buddhism's own mechanism, in addition to being influenced by politics, economy, culture, etc., Buddhism itself has an internal motivation for sinicization, that is, Buddhism can self-regulate and self-organize. In the teachings of Buddhism, there is the content of universal sentient beings. In order to be able to facilitate salvation, gain access to change, and flexibly guide sentient beings on the path to liberation, Buddhism must be integrated with the cultures of various places. Therefore, the sinicization of Buddhism is a reproduction of the theoretical characteristics of Buddhism itself. For example, in the early Mahayana scriptures, the Lotus Sutra advocated the use of skill and convenience to benefit sentient beings, and the Capricorn Sutra also advocated skill and convenience. After Buddhism was introduced to China, China's eminent monks also translated Buddhist scriptures with skillful and convenient wisdom to promote the realization of the Sinicization of Buddhism.
1) Sinicization of Buddhist sects.
In the process of Sinicization of Buddhism, Han Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism and Dai Buddhism were formed. Henan Buddhism is mainly Han Buddhism, that is, Sinicized Buddhism, and the sinicization of Buddhism mainly refers to the sinicization of Buddhist teachings and Buddhist ritual systems. The foundation of the sinicization of Buddhism is the sinicization of Buddhist teachings. The sinicization of Buddhism mainly includes the Confucianization of Buddhism, the metaphysics of Laozhuang, and the deification of Fangshu Ling, which meets the needs of people at different levels. For example, the Confucianization of Buddhism is to prevent Buddhism from conflicting with political power and ideology, the Laozhuang metaphysics of Buddhism is to be able to integrate into traditional culture, and the deification of Buddhism's magic is to satisfy the curiosity of some people and the spiritual needs of the lower classes. It can be said that the sinicization of Buddhism has greatly promoted the spread of Buddhism in China and promoted the integration of Buddhism with traditional culture.
In the process of the formation of Buddhist sects, the sinicization of Buddhism was promoted, and there was a strong exclusivity between the various sects, with the aim of realizing the integration of their own sects and their own sects. The sinicization of modern Buddhism is manifested in promoting dialogue and integration among various sects, moving towards unity at the level of righteousness and reasoning, and moving towards closure in attitude, and shifting from the educational function of Buddhism to the function of religious belief. The sinicization of Buddhism does not violate the basic teachings of Buddhism, but only organically combines the spirit of Buddhism with traditional Chinese culture and promotes the innovative development of traditional Chinese culture. Some Buddhist teachings are expressed in sinicized language and methods, which are different from both traditional Chinese culture and Indian Buddhist culture, but do not violate the basic teachings and concepts of Buddhism, which on the one hand shows that Buddhist culture has something in common with traditional Confucian and Taoist cultures, and also shows that traditional Chinese culture is extremely inclusive.
2) Sinicization of Buddhist teachings.
After Buddhism was introduced to China, it was necessary to interpret Buddhist culture with Chinese culture and show Buddhist tenets in the form of Chinese culture. The Buddhist culture is combined with traditional Chinese ideology and culture, integrated with China's native Taoism and folk religion, abandons some Indian cultural factors, draws on traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism culture, and forms a Chinese Buddhist sect. In particular, Han Buddhism in the Central Plains has unique Chinese and national characteristics, and is one of the three pillars of traditional Chinese culture alongside Confucianism and Taoism. Indian Buddhism must be integrated with China's native culture, adapt to Chinese traditional culture, and carry out comprehensive innovation and transformation of its content and form before it can take root and sprout in the land of China. As far as Chinese culture is concerned, it must be inclusive, absorb the ideological achievements of foreign Buddhist culture, and use them for our own use, so as to realize the sinicization of Buddhism. In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he borrowed a large number of linguistic vocabulary from Laozi and Zhuangzi, and used metaphysical reasoning to attach Buddhist doctrine to try to spread and be accepted in China. The distortion of Buddhist scriptures, intentionally or unintentionally, is actually for the purpose of realizing the sinicization of Buddhism. With people's understanding of the teachings of Buddhism, some misunderstandings and misinterpretations have been criticized and eliminated, which in fact has further sinicized Buddhism.
3) Sinicization of Buddhist beliefs.
Some Chinese intellectuals fabricated and forged Buddhist scriptures, but to a certain extent, they embody the spirit of Buddhism, reflect Chinese's purpose of satisfying their own spiritual needs through reforming, repairing, and innovating foreign Buddhism, and are the embodiment of the Sinicization of Buddhism, and are also the efforts made by Chinese Buddhism to get rid of the shackles of foreign scriptures, and are also an expression of the independent development of Sinicized Buddhism, and also an important way to realize the Sinicization of Buddhism, showing the attitude of "for my own use". The fabrication of Buddhist stories is based on the actual needs of Chinese folk beliefs, which has also become an important part of Sinicized Buddhism and further promoted the Sinicization of Buddhism. Since the day Buddhism was introduced to China, it has started the process of sinicization, that is, adapting to China's social environment, ideological traditions, and even serving court politics. After Buddhism was introduced into China, combined with China's first-class centralized system, successive dynasties adopted the strategy of coexistence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, providing Buddhism with land, mountains and forests and economic support, protecting Buddhist activities, making it accept the protection and jurisdiction of the secular government, and playing a social role in supporting government with religion. Buddhism was attached to the secular politics of the dynasty and was supported by the royal family and the intellectuals of the noble family, which promoted the process of Sinicization of Buddhism. All dynasties have brought Buddhism under the jurisdiction of the regime, adapted to the requirements of secular rule, and brought into play the functions of Buddhism in praying for blessings and eliminating disasters, respecting elders, and harmonizing society.
4) Sinicization of Buddhist belief carriers.
In the process of establishing Buddhism in China, the main body of Buddhist belief has become sinicized. With the translation of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese, Chinese believers accepted and understood the Buddhist faith. Subsequently, Buddhism gradually spread to China, and was influenced by Chinese traditional culture and folk customs and culture, forming a Buddhist belief system with local Chinese characteristics. There are not only Buddhist scholars and believers in the Chinese version of Buddhism, but also Buddhist architecture, carving, painting, and other artistic expressions of Buddhism in the form of Sinicization, not only the reverence and understanding of the Buddha by believers, but also the belief in Buddhism by intellectuals and the people is also very popular, and even the belief in Buddhism is also very popular, and a large number of Buddhist temples have appeared, these Buddhist temples are similar to traditional Chinese temples, ancestral halls, ancestral halls, and there are differences, and there are similarities between various Buddha statues and traditional Chinese gods. When Buddhism was introduced to China in the early days, it was believed and worshiped by people alongside Huang and Lao, which is also the embodiment of the sinicization of Buddhism.
5) Popularization of Buddhist beliefs.
The sinicization of Buddhism was also accompanied by the folkization of Buddhism, and since the vast majority of people in traditional China were illiterate, there were very few people who could be proficient in Buddhist principles. After Buddhism was introduced to China, it had to face the lower class of people and their lower culture, and China's lower class culture or national culture absorbed and transformed some aspects of Buddhism to make it a part of Chinese folk culture. After Buddhism entered China, it was combined with some gods and people, divination and divination, healing diseases, observing celestial phenomena, etc., and gained a firm foothold among the people, laying the foundation for the spread of Buddhism. This also makes Sinicized Buddhism easy to understand and deeply rooted in the people. Some folk people adapt the stories in Buddhism into literary form, or in order to attract the people to spread the teachings, the stories in the Buddhist scriptures are added to some folk tales, forming the concept of life and death, karma, etc., and becoming a part of the folk culture and folk beliefs of Chinese folk culture, such as the folk belief that Guanyin Bodhisattva is from Buddhism, and people try to obtain secular blessings by asking Guanyin Bodhisattva for help. Another example is that Guan Yu in China is respected by people, and Sinicized Buddhism worships him as Garan Bodhisattva. The popularization and popularization of Buddhism is an important way to sinicize Buddhism. Another feature of the sinicization of Buddhism is the nationalization of the daily lives of Han monks. After Buddhism was introduced to China, due to the cold climate, Dharma robes were made, and judging from the clothing of Sinicized Buddhism, Buddhism has realized the sinicization of daily life. Another manifestation of the sinicization of Buddhism is the vegetarian diet of Buddhists. In the precepts of primitive Buddhism, there was no prohibition on eating meat. When Buddhism was first introduced to China, there was no particular emphasis on vegetarianism. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang, monks and nuns were forced to eat vegetarian diets. As a result, vegetarianism has become a traditional habit of Sinicized Buddhism. Indian Buddhism generally does not live in big cities and villages, but lives in the wilderness, while Sinicized Buddhism spreads in the cities, and Chinese-style palaces and monasteries appear. Although there are also Buddhist temples in China in the mountains and forests, many more monasteries are in the metropolis, and the temples are magnificent in scale and resplendent in gold.
2. Actively guide the sinicization of Buddhism to adapt to socialist society.
The sinicization of Buddhism is a systematic and complex work, and it is necessary to seek progress while maintaining stability, prevent one-size-fits-all, and not only take the overall situation into account, but also do a solid and detailed job, plan carefully, organize carefully, and advance steadily. Create conditions for the sinicization of Buddhism in terms of ideology, culture, policy, planning, and guidance. Historically, Buddhism has gone through a long and complex process of sinicization. Under the current conditions, the main thing is to guide Buddhism to adapt to socialism and integrate with traditional Chinese culture.
1) Actively guide Buddhism to adapt to socialism.
Some people think that Buddhism has already been sinicized and there is no need for further sinicization, which is a misunderstanding of the sinicization of Buddhism. At this stage, some Buddhists and some people, under the banner of Buddhism, use the influence of Buddhism to provoke national unity and cause bad impact. Therefore, it is necessary to inherit and carry forward the positive elements of Buddhist culture, build the home of the Chinese nation's community, forge the sense of community of the Chinese nation, give play to the positive role of Buddhism, prevent the negative role, and oppose some people using Buddhist beliefs to endanger national unity and social order. The development of some Buddhist beliefs is lagging behind, and some people in the Buddhist circles are backward in thinking, and the management mode of temples is conservative, and they are unwilling to accept new information, new ideas, and new concepts, which are out of touch with the pace of the times. To adhere to the direction of Sinicization of Buddhism, it is necessary to give Buddhism a new connotation of the times and a new concept of the times, show a new image and new atmosphere of Buddhism, give play to the function of Buddhism in serving the society and fulfilling social responsibilities, maintain social stability, serve the public welfare, and promote social construction. Give full play to the awareness of the state, citizenship, and the rule of law among people in the Buddhist circles. The sinicization of Buddhism should meet the requirements of the progress of the times, and enrich the content of the new era in terms of Buddhist teachings and rituals. Do not interfere in the judicial, administrative, educational, and social affairs of the state in the name of religion, and in particular, prevent Buddhism from being used by hostile forces outside the country. Actively guide Buddhism to adapt to socialism, properly handle the relationship between the party and Buddhism, the relationship between society and Buddhism, the relationship between different religions and Buddhism, the relationship between Chinese Buddhism and foreign Buddhism, and the relationship between religious believers and non-believers, and unite religious figures, religious believers, and the people of the whole country to work hard to realize the Chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
2) Guide Buddhists and believers to abide by discipline and law.
Strengthen the building of Buddhism itself, pay attention to being politically reliable, efficient in work, and democratic in style in the building of Buddhist leadership groups, cultivate a group of teaching personnel with excellent quality and excellent work style, and cultivate a group of eminent monks and great virtues to promote the sinicization of Buddhism. Strengthen education on patriotism, collectivism, and socialism in the Buddhist community, cultivate and practice the core socialist values, and carry forward the excellent traditional Chinese culture. Establish a correct view of the country, nationality, history, culture, and religion. Actively publicize legal education in Buddhist circles, enhance awareness of the rule of law, and respect the law and abide by the law. We should increase the activities of bringing traditional Chinese culture into temples, run Buddhist colleges and universities, and train a group of talented people who are proficient in Buddhist education and excellent traditional Chinese culture. Strengthen self-management, self-restraint, and self-education of Buddhists, severely punish those who violate the rules, and guide religious believers to stress the overall situation, understand the general situation, and stress science. Strengthen education on loving the party, the country, and socialism. Do a good job in the sinicization of Buddhist teachings, carry forward traditional Chinese culture, unite Buddhist circles and the broad masses of religious believers to explore the content of Buddhist teachings that is in line with social harmony, the progress of the times, and healthy civilization, and increase the transformation and application of achievements in the construction of religious ideology, so that the content and form of Buddhism meet the requirements of the times and the current ideas. Support temples to introduce modern management systems and management concepts, and realize democratic management, management according to law, and scientific management. In accordance with the requirements of relevant laws, guide Buddhist circles and religious believers to abide by social morality and abandon outdated conventions and bad habits. Implement policies for the supervision and management of monasteries, realize the recognition of Chinese culture by the Buddhist community, crack down on mystical and superstitious Buddhist activities, support the religious community to keep pace with the times, and guide the reform of inconsistencies between Buddhism and modern life.
3) Guide Buddhism to coordinate with economic, social, and cultural development.
Buddhist culture is an important part of cultural tourism resources, China's Buddhist cultural resources are abundant, there are many Buddhist tourist attractions, around the temple to carry out tourism viewing, investigation, visit and study experience, etc., to promote the development of Buddhist tourism, but also to make some people get the comfort and satisfaction of the soul. The sinicization of Buddhism should be conducive to promoting economic, social, and ecological development, improving the quality of life of contemporary people, promoting the protection and inheritance of Buddhist culture, leaving rich cultural resources for future generations, making positive contributions to the development of traditional culture, providing Buddhist theoretical support for the inheritance and continuation of Chinese civilization, and providing cultural support for economic and social construction. At the present stage, it is necessary to guide Buddhist culture to adapt to the core values of socialism and modern society, advocate a positive aesthetic view, ecological view, and harmonious view, and promote the sustainable development of society and the all-round development of people.
4) Strengthen education and guidance to maintain the orthodoxy and righteousness of Buddhism in Henan.
First, religious affairs departments should guide clergy to believe and act correctly and oppose superstitionClerics should educate devotees, pilgrims, and visitors about what is true Buddhism and what is superstitious. Second, monks, nuns, and lay people who live or work in temples should guide believers to enter the incense in a civilized manner, and must not defraud pilgrims and tourists of money by any meansEducate believers to abide by the laws of the country and uphold the right faith. Third, travel agencies and tour guides should be environmentally conscious and educate tourists to protect the ecological environment and not litterIt is also necessary to guide tourists and pilgrims visiting temples to stay away from superstition, advocate correct and positive beliefs, and be good and benevolent. Fourth, use the press, radio, television, CD-ROMs, the Internet, and so forth to publicize the importance of protecting the environment of religious activity sites, publicize the dangers of superstitious activities, and guide the masses to abide by national lawsSupervise uncivilized tourism and behaviors that endanger the environmental health of temples, and timely uncivilized behaviors. Fifth, religious affairs departments, eminent monks and management personnel of temples should communicate and cooperate with each other and take active and effective measures to maintain the environment of temple sitesFind a fit between national laws and Buddhism, and take concrete measures to uphold orthodoxy and oppose superstition.
5) Strengthen management and special governance to crack down on Buddhist superstitious activities in Henan.
First, the religious affairs department should regularly and irregularly carry out special management of temple sites, and in addition to investigating illegal acts, they should also supervise the public health of the activity sites, crack down on superstitious activities, and maintain true BuddhismInspect and supervise the special governance work. Second, the act of collecting money in the name of promoting traditional culture should be dealt with in accordance with the lawRectify illegal religious activities that induce believers and tourists to burn incense and defraud money;Superstitious activities such as praying for gods, drawing lots, fortune-telling, and divination were banned. Third, religious affairs departments should exchange views with departments of culture, health, urban construction, and neighborhood offices, and form a consensus to jointly rectify temple sites and superstitious religious activities that affect urban sanitation and urban imageIf the circumstances are serious, they should be criticized or investigated for legal responsibility, so as to maintain a normal living environment for the public. Fourth, cadres of religious departments and Buddhist associations are required to be responsible for the public health and ecological environment of temple sites, and that sites that have been polluted should be rectified within a time limitWhere governance is not completed within the prescribed time limit, the environmental protection departments are to give punishments in accordance with regulations and law. Fifth, in accordance with the "General Requirements for the Safety of Incense Products", "Safety Specifications for Incense Burning in Religious Activity Sites" and "Test Methods for Harmful Substances in Incense Products" and other standards, the safety and pollution degree of the production of incense shall be supervised and managed, and enterprises that do not produce according to the standards shall be banned;Supervise the sales of incense and investigate and deal with counterfeit and shoddy products.
Author: Zhao Zhihao, Associate Researcher, Institute of Philosophy and Religion, Henan Academy of Social Sciences This paper is the interim result of the innovative project of Henan Academy of Social Sciences, "Adhering to the Direction of Sinicization of Religion in China and Resisting the Penetration of Radical Religious Thoughts" (Project No.: 23A14).