Manichaeism (also known as Mingjiao) is a religion founded by Mani, a Persian, in the mid-third century AD. He absorbed the ideas and concepts of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and **, created his own doctrines, canons, and ordinances, declared himself the fourth prophet after Zoroaster, Shakyamuni, and Jesus, and tried to establish a world religion that saved mankind.
The religion is centered on the "two sects and three worlds", the so-called two sects are light and darkness, and the three worlds are the initial realm of the separation of the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness, the middle realm of the two fighting each other, and the latter realm of the reset of the order of the two. At the beginning of Manichaeism, it was supported by Shahir I, the king of Sassanid Persia, but the religion was opposed to childbirth and procreation, which was bound to cause strong dissatisfaction among the ruling class. In 277 A.D., Mani was skinned and died, and the followers scattered. Subsequently, by "the 6th century, it was expelled from the Roman Empire under the combined oppression of the Church and the royal power. But traces of it can still be found in Chinese historical sources up to the 17th century. Manichaeism, which many people call the "moral religion", was indeed popular in Asia, Africa, and Europe in the Middle Ages as a world religion, and had a tremendous impact on the society at that time.
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1. The question of the time when Manichaeism was introduced to the Central Plains
As early as 1909, according to the record in the "Chronicles of Chang'an" about the establishment of the Guangming Temple in the fourth year of Emperor Kaihuang of Sui, Jiang Axe believed that the time when Manichaeism was introduced to China should be between Zhou and Sui. Sha Wan and Bo Xihe believe that "Manichaeism was imported into China in 694 by a so-called Fu Duo Nian. ”
According to the "Buddha's Records", volume 39, "the first year of the extension......The Persian people have come to the dynasty with the pseudo-religion of the "Two Sects", and inferred that "the beginning of Manichaeism was through China, and as we see now, it precedes the first year of the Tang Dynasty (694) recorded in the "Buddha's Chronicles".
A passage in the Tang Dynasty's "Records of Spirits and Ghosts" about the white-clothed Taoist priests in the 12th year of Taiyuan believes that the 12th year of Emperor Xiaowu of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (387) is the earliest known record of the introduction of Manichaeism into China. It is generally believed that Manichaeism had already entered China before the Martial Arts, but Lin Wushu thought that "the arrival of Manichaeism in the first year of the Extension of the Dynasty only marked the official recognition of Manichaeism in China and the beginning of public dissemination, and before that, Manichaeism had been circulating among the people for a long time." ......Chinese mainland may have felt the message of Manichaeism as early as the beginning of the fourth century. ”
Of the two disagreements, the latter seems to be the more convincing. Religion is an exclusive social ideology, and the generation, development, and demise of a religion cannot be accomplished in a short period of time. Engels once said: "All religions in antiquity were spontaneous tribal religions and later national religions, which arose from the social and political conditions of various peoples and grew up with them." Once these foundations of religion are destroyed, and the inherited social forms, inherited political structures, and national independence are destroyed, then the religion that is compatible with them will naturally collapse. ”
This shows the close relationship between religion and politics, and conversely, if a ruler wants to promote a completely different foreign religion within the territory, it is certainly not possible to enforce it by administrative order from above. "If a foreign religion wants to spread in China, it will inevitably be hindered by the exclusivity of China's inherent traditional culture."
This involves a long-term process of transformation of national traditions and psychological acceptance by the population. Since the existence and spread of a religion is subject to many constraints, the Chinese rulers would not have vigorously promoted the unheard-of Manichaeism just because of a few volumes of "false teachings"** and made the religion widely spread in a short period of time. Therefore, it is not difficult to imagine that those foreign missionaries who came from Central Asia wanted to make Manichaeism have a place in the Central Plains, where Buddhism and Taoism have long taken root, and what they need to do is far more than simply carrying scriptures to meet the emperor.
Manichaean fragments excavated in Egypt.
It can be considered that before the birth of Fu Duo came to China, the Chinese people should have had a certain foundation of Manichaeism, or there was already an influence of Manichaeism.
Previously, the source of the introduction of Manichaeism in the Central Plains was **, and there were still differences in the academic circles: some people believe that "Manichaeism has experienced more than 400 years from its founding in the third century to the first year of the extension of the Tang Dynasty, and has long been widely spread in the Western Regions." [11] Tang Manichaeism originated in the Western Regions. However, there is no conclusive evidence of whether the religion was spread in the early days of the Western Regions. At least the excavated documents show that the first transmission of Gaochang Manichaeism was dated after the first year of Yuan He (806).
Therefore, it is also believed that the Manichaean system of the Central Plains was directly transmitted from Central Asia. But Manichaeism may have been introduced to the Central Plains through informal channels before the first year of the Extension, so that the religion could have more followers in a short period of time. It is undeniable that people-to-people exchanges between countries have always been more prosperous than official exchanges, and information has been transmitted more quickly. Obviously, we cannot define all the "Shang Bai" and illusionist people in Chinese history books as Manichaeans, because it is not uncommon for historical records to come from the Western Regions, Central Asia, and even European countries to wear white clothes and know strange skills, and most of them are not Manichaeans.
The introduction of Manichaeism did not attract enough attention from the rulers, who "merely dealt with it with a normal mind." [13] It was even "strictly forbidden" because of its "vain claim to Buddhism and confusing Li Yuan". It was not until the Tang Dynasty that it was able to build the Dayun Guangming Temple in the Tang capital and the four major prefectures with the support of the Uighurs.
2. The prohibition of Kaiyuan
The turning point of fate occurred in the twentieth year of the Kaiyuan Dynasty.
The Manichaean Light Buddhist Rituals is one of the three Manichaean remnants found in the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang in the early 20th century. The title is signed: "On June 8, the 19th year of the Kaiyuan Dynasty, Dade Fu Duo Birthday Edict Ji Xian Yuan Translation", indicating that the "Yi Luo" was written in Jixian Yuan in 731 by the edict of Xuanzong of Manichaeism, mainly to introduce the founders, scriptures, ordinances and canons of Manichaeism. In the second year of the writing of the "Yiluo", that is, in July of the 20th year of the Kaiyuan Dynasty, Xuanzong issued an edict: "The end of the Mani is a heresy, falsely claiming Buddhism, confusing Li Yuan, and it is advisable to strictly prohibit it." With its Xihu and other township laws, they should be their own and do not need to be convicted. ”
As a result of this order, Manichaeism became a "cult" that could only be spread among the Hu people.
The reasons for the ban have been discussed by many scholars. Because there are few historical records about Manichaeism in the Central Plains, and historical records about the situation in the early Tang Dynasty are even rarer, many scholars have turned their attention to the "Yiluo", hoping to find the answer from it. Xuanzong's edict interrupted his crime of "falsely claiming Buddhism", so the prohibition of Manichaeism should be closely related to Buddhism. "It is very likely that Xuanzong was strongly provoked by the Buddhist monks to issue this edict"; Wang Jianchuan believes that Xuanzong did not prohibit Manichaeism because of the encouragement of Buddhist monks, but forbade it as a heresy of Buddhism. The Yilu unscrupulously highlights the essence and characteristics of Manichaeism itself, while at the same time rejecting the foundations of Daoist theology recognized by the Li Tang royal family.
This angered the Tang monarchs and courtiers, so that they could not only regard Manichaeism as a sect of Buddhism, nor could they bring it under the teachings of Laojun
Xuanzong's religious policy was "Taoism and Buddhism, all of which are one, forgetting each other, and not being noble", did not emphasize which of the two religions was more noble, but compared with other emperors of the Tang Dynasty, he was not a monarch of Buddha. The ban on Manichaeism was preceded by the Patriarch's "appearance" in the Tang Dynasty.
Volume 971 "Foreign Ministers' Department" Four Records of Tribute: "In June (the seventh year of Kaiyuan), the Great Food Kingdom, the Tocharian Kingdom, the Kang Kingdom, and the Southern Tianzhu Kingdom sent envoys to pay tribute, and the Emperor of the Tocharian State Branch Khanna presented the astronomical Damu Yan on credit: 'His people are wise and deep, and they know everything. Fu begging Tian'en summoned Mu Yan, personally asked the ministers and other matters and teachings, knowing that his people have such an ability, I hope to make him worship, and set up a Dharma hall, according to this religion to support his eldest male Ji Hunting. Although it is not known whether the rulers of the Tang Dynasty really set up a dharma hall for the archbishop as requested in the text, the word "Benjiao" in the text indicates that it is a religion that is different from orthodox Buddhism, and it should be enough for the Tang Emperor to know that there is a certain difference between them.
It is more likely that Xuanzong, under the instigation of Buddhist monks, could not tolerate the "originally heretious" Manichaean Church and used Buddhist clothes to cover up its "** essence", and finally issued an edict to prohibit it.
After the ban of the Kaiyuan Dynasty, Manichaeism almost disappeared from Chinese historical books. It was not until after the Anshi Rebellion that it reappeared as a state religion in the territory of the Uighur Khanate with the power of the Uighur Khanate.
3. Mobei Uighur Manichaeism
Manichaeism was introduced to China by the Persians or "Nine Surnamed Hu". However, after the Great Calendar, its resurgence in the Central Plains was due to the Uighurs. The religion was banned from China for decades, and it was only allowed to spread among the Hu people, but this was only the first stage of its spread in the Central Plains, and the second stage of more prosperity was brought about by the Uighurs.
During the Anshi Rebellion, the Uighur Muyu Khan led reinforcements into the Tang Dynasty in the first year of Suzong Baoying (762) to conquer Shi Chaoyi and regain Luoyang, where he met several Manichaeans and brought them back to the Mobei Uighur kingdom in the following year (763), where he had always believed in shamanism. After several days of debate, these Manichaeans finally defeated shamanism and became the state religion of the Uighurs. This has been confirmed from the Tablet of the Nine Uighur Khans.
It is difficult to determine when Manichaeism was introduced to the Uighurs. There are several theories about this, one of which is that 763 "was the beginning of the introduction of Manichaeism to the Uighurs." ”；One view is that "the Uighurs may have been exposed not only to Manichaeism but also to other religions prevalent among the Han Chinese before 763." ”
The Uighurs have always been a nomadic people of Mobei who believe in shamanism, "shamanism, strictly speaking, cannot be called a religion, but an extremely primitive worship of natural spiritual power." Its primitive teachings corresponded to the way of life and the means of rule of the Uighur society at that time, and by 763 the shamans were deeply entrenched in the Uighurs. If it was only because of the Manichaean monks' "talent to the sea and the debate like a river" that the Uighur Khan immediately made up his mind to "repent of his past wrongs" and "do the right thing", and at the same time, the Uighurs also became "the land of vegetables and rice" and "the country of persuasion", it seems too miraculous! And, even if the Khan had indeed "lost his heart and was troubled", "knelt before the elect and begged forgiveness for his sins", how could the shamans give up so easily if he had converted to Manichaeism? Moreover, "in fact, shamanism did not disappear immediately after the introduction of Manichaeism to the Uighurs, and shamanism was still respected and revered by the masses and even the Dagans." ”
It can be seen from this that Mani's status as a state religion could not be established overnight, but must go through a long process and a period of arduous struggle. From the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang dynasties, the Uighurs had come into direct or indirect contact with Central Asia, and it is possible that the Uighurs had been exposed to Manichaeism before 763.
Why, then, did the Uighurs decide to abandon the shamans in favor of Mani? Mu Yu Khan's choice of Manichaeism over other religions as the state religion was mainly due to the fact that after the Uighurs helped the Tang Dynasty to quell the rebellion, he relied on the Sogdians to develop a commercial economy, so he had to be influenced by the Sogdians who believed in Manichaeism in terms of religious beliefs. When the Uighurs were transformed from "a tribal confederation of clan societies to a state of class society," "the shamanism of the gods could no longer meet the needs of society." ”
Therefore, Manichaeism, which "contains a whole set of moral and ethical concepts of class society and the norms of behavior of different classes," naturally became the state religion of the Uighurs. From the perspective of the Uighur society at that time, the Sogdians had already occupied the upper class, and in order to better control and consolidate the rights they had gained, they were bound to instill their living customs and cultural ideas into the Uighurs, and the introduction of Manichaeism was a very important link. It should be said that the support of the Sogdians also made the flourishing of the religion in the Uighurs an inevitable trend.
The conversion of the Uighurs had a very profound impact."
First, the Manichaeans "created a writing system based on the Sogdian alphabet" for the purpose of translating the Scriptures, which "gave the Uighurs a reputation as preeminent scribes among the peoples of the Western Regions." More importantly, "at this time, the social and economic development of the Uighurs had gradually increased from animal husbandry to agriculture, and from non-sedentary to semi-sedentary," and the Manichaean monks often discussed politics with the Khan. In addition to the important political position of the Uighurs, the Manichaean monks also played an important role in the economic aspect, along with the 'Nine Hus', who helped the Uighur nobility to do business and seek profits. Moreover, in their dealings with the Manichaean Sogdians, the Uighurs learned the art of doing business and became an active force in commercial activities. In addition, the Sogdians were able to participate in the military service. The jury is still out as to whether Manichaean monks were in business.
Some scholars believe that the popularity of Manichaeism and the rise to power of the Manichaean monks accelerated the decline of Uighur society, which is obviously not objective, and although the arrogance of the Manichaeans and the nine surnamed Hu may have hastened the general outbreak of social contradictions, their negative role should not be overstated. An analysis of the Uighurs at that time shows that the contradictions within the ruling class and the poverty of the common people foreshadowed its eventual demise in 840.
After that, the influence of Mobei Manichaeism extended back to the territory of the Tang Dynasty, and the monasteries of this religion also appeared in many places in the Central Plains. Volume 41 of "The Buddha's Chronicles": in the third year of the Great Calendar (768), "the Emperor of the Emperor built the Great Cloud Guangming Temple"; In the sixth year of the Great Calendar (771), "Hui Hui asked Yu Jing, Yang, Hong, Yue and other states to place the Dayun Guangming Temple". After that, there was no record of Manichaeism until the second year of Yuanhe (807), when the volume 999 of the "Shufu Yuangui" recorded: "The Uighur envoys asked for the three Manichaean monasteries in Henan and Taiyuan Prefectures, and allowed them." From then on, until the fall of the Mobei Uighurs in 840, Manichaean monks frequently appeared among their envoys to China.
4. Uighur Manichaeism in Gaochang.
In 840, the Mobei Uighur Khanate died at the hands of the Uighurs. After moving westward to Gaochang, the Uighur tribes continued to practice Manichaeism as their state religion. The Uighurs of Ghochang in the ninth and twelfth centuries were the de facto center of Manichaeism in the world.
The first transmission of Manichaeism to Gaochang is generally believed to have been after 840. According to a small fragment written in the Parthian Turkic language, it is thought that Manichaeism may have spread from the Central Plains to the Turpan region as early as 665. During the time of the Huaixin Khan (795-808), Gaochang had become a base of Manichaeism. After the Mobei Uighur Khanate took direct control of Qochang in 803, the Manichaean Order gained a foothold and gradually spread widely.
Even earlier, in 762 3, 546 years after the birth of the Lightbringer, the Sogdians in a temple in Yanqi began to copy the Manichaean hymns.
An analysis of the Manichaean monastic texts found in Turpan, Gaochang, and the Manichaean Rituals show that the Manichaean monks at that time had departed from or relaxed their asceticism, drinking alcohol, raising livestock, enslaved slaves, and strict hierarchies, and were "actively involved in the social and economic life of the Uighur kingdom."
Judging from the contents of the excavated documents, whether it is the cultivation economy of the monasteries, the strict hierarchy or the use of labor, it proves that the Manichaeism of the Uighurs in Gaochang has a deep feudal imprint.
The jury is not clear as to when the religion disappeared from the Uighurs in Qocho. Around the 11th century, Manichaeism began to show signs of decline, and its center of development may have moved from the capital of Gaochang to Tuyugou. Chen Junmou believes that the time of the final demise was around the 11th century; Lin Wushu believes that it ran parallel with Buddhism for hundreds of years, until it became extinct in the 14th century; Its demise is attributed to the conversion of Uighur rulers to Buddhism around the 10th century, while others believe that the infiltration of Islam in the late 12th century led the Uighurs to abandon Manichaeism.
5. Follow-up development.
At the time of the Huichang Martyrdom, a large number of Manichaeans fled from the center of the empire to the southeast coast. After the catastrophe of Huichang, Manichaeism could no longer be openly preached in the society, but was secretly circulated among the people, and gradually combined with other religions, and the five dynasties and the two Song dynasties are still undiminished. Since then, it has been combined with the struggle of the lower strata and has become one of the calling banners of the peasant uprising.
Manichaean Light Buddhist Rituals", paper, scroll. Size: 26 x 150 cm Date: Tang Dynasty 19th year (731 AD).
Five dynasties. Five generations later, in the sixth year of Liang Zhenming (920), Wu Yi and Dong Yi rebelled in Chenzhou (now Huaiyang, Henan) relying on Buddhism. This rebellion has long been mistaken for Manichaeism in history. "The History of the Old Five Dynasties" recorded: "The vulgar people in Chenzhou, who like to learn the left way, according to the teachings of the Futu clan, set up their own sect, called 'superior'." Don't eat meat, lure the mediocre people, knead the **, gather at night and disperse. ”
The Song Dynasty Buddhist book "Buddha Tongji" contains: "In the sixth year of Liang Zhenming, at the end of Chenzhou, Wuyi was established as the Son of Heaven, and the imperial court sent troops to capture and behead him. His disciples drank meat and wine, gathered at night, painted the demon king to sit, and the Buddha washed his feet, "The Buddha stops the Mahayana, and I am superior." ”
Ouyang Xiu's "New History of the Five Dynasties" adopts the old history of the Five Dynasties, and also calls the Wuyi Rebellion Buddhism. "And the old customs are good and obscene to the left of the temple, and its students of Buddhism have established a law on their own, called 'superior', gathering day and night, and men and women are mixed. Shi Zanning's "Brief History of the Monks" continued the "Buddha's Chronicles", not only slandering the rebellion of Wuyi as Manichaeism, but also confusing the Sanyi religion, which was misled by later generations.
After the conversion of the Great Khanate to Islam in the fifties of the 11th century, the Manichaeism of the Uighurs of Qocho gradually died out. After the 13th century, it was no longer popular in the western regions north and south of the Tianshan Mountains.
Surname. Manichaeism in the Song Dynasty showed a trend of divergence. A part of Manichaeism was further developed on the basis of Taoism. As early as the Tang Dynasty, in the "Mani Light Buddhist Rituals", the "Lao Tzu Hua Hu Jing" was quoted to argue that Lao Tzu, the Buddha and Mani are one: ""Lao Tzu Hua Hu Jing" cloud: 'I took the natural light and Taoism and flew into the neighboring countries of the Su in the realm of the king of Xinuo and showed myself as the crown prince. Giving up his family and entering the Tao, he is called Mani. Turning the ** wheel, saying that the precepts and the wisdom of the law, and even the three worlds and the two sects. From the upper realm to the lower realm, all sentient beings are in this way. After Mani, the age is fifty-nine, and I am the one who is prosperous. ’”
In the Song Dynasty, when Taoism flourished, Manichaeism relied on Taoism to further deepen its behavior. During the Daoist period (995-997), Li Tingyu, a native of Huai'anshi, obtained a Manichaean statue in the capital, and Manichaeism began to spread in Fujian. In the Zhenzong Dynasty, Lin Shichang, a scholar from Fujian, took the Manichaean Sutra and offered Fuzhou literature. The Manichaean "Two Sects and Three Classics" was compiled into the Taoist collection and placed in the Mingdao Palace in Bozhou. In the fifth year of Dazhong Xiangfu (1012), Zhang Junfang took the Tang Dynasty Taoist collection in the Taiqing Palace as the basis, and took the old Tibetan Taoist collections in Suzhou, Yuezhou, Taizhou and other places to build the "Great Song Dynasty Heavenly Palace Treasure", which contains the Manichaean "Ming Envoy Manichaean Sutra".
The Xiapu documents discovered in recent years show that Lin Gao, the ancestor of the Xiapu Ming Sect, appeared in the image of the Taoist "Xingfu Zhenren". Zhejiang Siming Chongshou Palace was originally a Manichaean temple, and later changed to a Taoist Taoist temple, and its Taoist priests also believed that Mani was the incarnation of Lao Tzu.
Another branch of Manichaeism flowed into the people, gradually blending with the secret religion of the people, and became the guiding ideology of the peasant uprising in the Song Dynasty. "Song Hui to Compile Manuscripts" contains:
On November 4, the second year of Xuanhe, the ministers said: The rebellious people in Wenzhou and other places call themselves Mingjiao and are called walkers. Nowadays, the Ming Sect practitioners have built houses in the villages where they live, called the Zhai Hall. For example, there are more than 40 places in Wenzhou, and they are privately built without quota Buddhist halls. In the first month of each year, the secret day in the calendar is taken, and the waiters, listeners, aunts, sisters and others are gathered to build a dojo, drum and fan the foolish men and women, and gather at night. The people of Mingjiao, who read ** and painted Buddha statues, are called "Sutra of Thought", "Sutra of Proof", "Sutra of the Prince's Birth", "Sutra of Parents", "Sutra of Pictures", "Sutra of Wenyuan", "Seven Hours", "Sunlight", "Moonlight", "Pingwen", "Ce Han Zan", "Praise of Strategy", "Vast Confession", "Miaoshui Buddha Frame", "Xianyi Buddha Frame", "Yishu Buddha Frame", "Good and Evil Frame", "Prince Frame", "Four Heavenly Kings Frame". The sutra number has been superior, that is, there is no explicit text in the Taoist interpretation of the sutra. The article is all about the absurdity of monsters, and the things of Mingzun are quoted more than that, which is different from the Taoist interpretation. As for the pronunciation of the characters, it is difficult to read, and it is an arrogant person who fabricates words, fools the people, and arrogates the title of the prince of heaven. Feng Yubi: Yang is in the lawsuit, and the truth is to be investigated, and everything such as the hall will be demolished. The person who commits the crime is to be punished in accordance with the regulations, and the reward is strictly established, and the person is allowed to make a report. In the future, there will be more places like this, and the state and county officials will be abolished in parallel, in order to violate the imperial pen. The incorruptible envoy was unconscious, and the supervisor was impeached, and he was guilty of the same crime.
Fang Lao referred to the heresy of folk religion as "eating vegetables and demons, gathering at night", and the Fangla Rebellion in the first year of Xuanhe (1119) was also one of these heretics. After that, Zhong Xiang rebelled in the fourth year of Jianyan in the Southern Song Dynasty (1130), and Han Shantong and Liu Futong rebelled in the tenth year of Yuan Zhizheng (1351), and Han Shantong and Liu Futong who were "born as the king of Ming" rebelled, and their thoughts may have been mixed with Manichaean elements.
Lu You's "Couplet" contains: "Demon people", with many names, "Huainan is called the two shirts, the two Zhejiang are called Munijiao, Jiangdong is called the four fruits, Jiangxi is called King Kong Zen, Fujian is called Mingjiao, Jiedi Zhai and the like." The names are different, and Mingjiao is especially prosperous. There are talents, officials, and soldiers who have also passed on their habits. Its god name is called the Ming Envoy, and there are also Flesh Buddha, Bone Buddha, Blood Buddha and so on. White-clothed black hat, where the company is located. Apocryphal demon image, as for the engraved flow. ”
Yuan. The "Manichaean Statue" silk painting scroll painted in the late Yuan Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty is a sacred icon used by Manichaeans in the southern coastal areas of China for religious worship.
The Yuan Dynasty was more tolerant of Mingjiao. Marco Polo recorded in his travelogue that he met a group of believers of unknown faith in the city of Fuzhou, who did not worship idols, fire, or Muhammad, and did not seem to be ** disciples. They maintained this belief for eight hundred years.
At the urging of Marco Polo, after a heated debate, the Great Khan Kublai Khan recognized their status as ** disciples. Throughout Fuzhou, more than 700,000 households maintain this faith. According to Birch, their beliefs were very different from those of the Nestorian Christians at the Mongol court, and therefore there was a need for debate to prove their beliefs. Moreover, the Jingjiao religion in the Tang Dynasty was mainly believed in by foreigners, and it was impossible for believers to have as many as 700,000 households in the Yuan Dynasty, and these believers did not have their own management institutions like ** disciples and Buddhists, so Bo Xihe thought they were Manichaeans. In the 50s of the 20th century, a Bishop of Yeli Kewen found in Quanzhou recorded: "The management of Jiangnan Zhulu Mingjiao, Qinjiao, etc., also Li Kewen, Mali Lost Door, Abis Guba, Mali Haxiya." In the second year of the Emperor's celebration, on the 15th day of August in the year of Guichou, the fans replied to sweep the horses and wept blood. It can be seen that in the Yuan Dynasty, Mingjiao was legitimate, and a Bishop of Yeli Kewen (** Sect) was in charge of both the Ming Sect and the Qin Sect (Jingjiao) in Jiangnan Zhulu. The statue of Mani Light Buddha in Jinjiang, Fujian Province was carved in the fifth year of the Yuan Dynasty, and the stone chamber of the hermitage itself was also built in the Yuan Dynasty. Temples such as Xuanzhen Temple and Qianguang Temple, which were built in the Southern Song Dynasty, were repaired in the Yuan Dynasty, and the inscriptions record that many civilians converted to Mingjiao at this time.
Manichaean temples before the Yuan Dynasty did not have the monastic life of ** religion or Buddhist monasteries, because their monks were not allowed to live in them unless they were sick. After the Yuan Dynasty, the Manichaeans no longer established individual orders, but built their own monasteries to house monks and books. In this way, the connection between the clergy and the laity was weakened, and Manichaeism was transformed from an external force into an attraction. With monasteries where monks lived in seclusion, Manichaeism became a religion of sit-and-talk again, and the religion began to gain a good reputation. It was during this period that a famous Confucian scholar converted to Manichaeism in order to become a hermit.
Manichaeism, which spread to the lower classes of the people, further developed, and eventually combined with secret religions such as the White Lotus Sect and Maitreya Religion, resulting in a peasant uprising at the end of the Yuan Dynasty.
Bright. In the peasant uprisings at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, religious heresy played an extremely important role. Han Shantong and others wrapped their heads in red scarves and called themselves the Red Turban Army under the banners of the White Lotus Sect and the Maitreya Sect. Zhu Yuanzhang once joined the "Xiao Ming King" Han Lin'er's Song State as the left deputy marshal, in 1364 he was named King of Wu, in 1368 he destroyed the Yuan and called the emperor, the country name is Daming, and the year name is Hongwu.
Zhu Yuanzhang started as a religious rebellion and was well aware of the influence of folk heresy. In the first year of Hongwu, he accepted Li Shanchang's suggestion and issued an edict to ban folk religious heresy, and Mingjiao was also among the bans. "Emperor Gao is fortunate to be in Bian, and he is good at staying behind, and he has to kill and worship Yan. The emperor also decreed that the feudal kings belonged to the country and rewarded the soldiers of the Central Plains. Please put Si Nongqing and cultivate in Henan. Please also prohibit obscenity and worship the White Lotus Society, Mingzun Sect, Baiyun, Witchcraft, Fuluan, Prayer Saint, and Shufu Water Evil Arts. Zhao Ke. ”
In the sixth year of Hongwu, Zhu Yuanzhang ordered Liu Weiqian, the secretary of the Criminal Department, to revise the "Da Ming Law". "All the teachers and witches pretend to descend evil gods, write talismans, spell water, support Luan, pray for saints, call themselves Duangong, Taibao, Shipo, and falsely claim to be Maitreya Buddha, White Lotus Society, Mingzun Sect, Baiyun Congregation, etc., in response to the tricks of heresy, or hide images, burn incense to gather people, gather at night, pretend to cultivate good deeds, incite the people, and hang the leader. For each servant a hundred rods, three thousand miles. ”
Since then, Mingjiao, as a folk underground religion, has gradually disappeared, while the Mingjiao branch, which is a local religion and does not participate in political struggles, has been inherited.
Wu Han believes that the name of the Ming Dynasty is inherited from Mingjiao.
Nowadays. In 2008, a large number of Manichaean documents and artifacts were discovered in Fujian, namely the Xiapu Script. The religious literature part of the Xiapu document includes "Mani Light Buddha", "Gao Guangwen", "Blessing Invitation to Buddha", "Leshantang Shenji", "Four Silence Praise", "Sending Buddha Praise", "Sending Buddha Text", "Fierce Look at Zhenming Sutra to Use This Text", "Sending the Three Realms Divine Text", "Merit Recital", "Auspicious Dojo Shen Han", "Auspicious Dojo Door Book", "Door Ying Keyuan", "Rain Shu", "Manicha Food Secret Method", "Paying the Certificate, Asking for Rank", "Ming Gate First Transmission Inviting the Master", "Borrowing Tin Cane Text", "Borrowing Zhu Wen", "Fu Tin Cane", "Playing Shen Shu Ke Book", "Lighting the Seven-Layer Science Book" Xingfu Zuqing Birthday" and "Anonymous Kewen" and many other documents are extremely important discoveries in the history of Manichaean studies.
Most of these documents were copied from the Qing Dynasty to modern times, and their roots can be traced back to Lin Gao in the Song Dynasty; Lin Gao was an extremely important figure in Manichaeism in the Song Dynasty, and was the leader of the local Manichaean organization "Leshantang", known as Dushi Zhenren and Xingfu Zhenren. These texts have been handed down from the Song Dynasty to the present day, and they retain a lot of Mingjiao thought; Not only that, but it also has a set of "lineage inheritance", and there are still Mingjiao mages who have mastered the texts of Mingjiao.
Of course, after thousands of years, these texts are no longer the original appearance of the Song Dynasty, and these mages are closer to Taoist priests who have mastered a certain amount of knowledge of Mingjiao. The direction of the evolution of Mingjiao reflected in the Xiapu documents is obviously in the same vein as Manichaeism in the Song Dynasty; That is, to carry out more in-depth Taoism on the basis of maintaining a certain degree of Buddhism. In addition, the direction of evolution of this branch of Mingjiao is towards popularization rather than elitism. Because of this, it is manifested in the form of Taoist heresy rather than rebellion, so it survived the suppression and attack of the cult in the Jiangnan area.
Many of the gods in the Xiapu documents are not mentioned in the Manichaean literature of the Tang Dynasty, but they can be found in Coptic, Arabic and other documents, or purely introduce Taoist and Buddhist gods. The Four Brahma Kings mentioned in the Xiapu texts, whose names are 嚧嚩逸啰, Mi Ha Yiluo, karma 嚩啰逸啰, and 娑啰逸啰, respectively represent the four directions and four silences, pure light, great wisdom—it seems to be the concept of the Four Heavenly Kings introduced from Buddhism; However, combined with the description in the first part of the Book of Enoch, the Book of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Cologne Manigu Scrolls, the four Brahma kings are actually the four angels in the present translation, namely Raphael, Michael, Gabriel, and Sha Rebellion. In Aramaic, the names of the four angels all end with 'el'. Micha'el) means god-like, Raphael (Rapha'el) means God**, Gabri'el means hero of God, and Sari'el means God's command. Another example is mentioned in "Lower Praise", the head general Ye Jufu, who often fights against the party. Nobita's pure wind can save his father, and he will teach and make precepts. The first general, Yekufu (not the Yakuya who is sick in the middle two......Although she uses raphael) often appears with the four Brahma kings, she is the most important ** messenger, the head of all angels; This angel appears several times in the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians and the Greek Prayer of Joseph, and his name is Jacob—the same Jacob who wrestled with the angels.
So far, the remnants of Manichaeism have indeed continued to this day, which shows the tenacity of its vitality.
Reference:Mr. Chen Yuan, "Manichaeism into China".
Mr. Lin Wushu, "The Dialectic of the Three Yi Religions in the Middle Ages", "Manichaeism and Its Eastward Expansion", and "Manichaeism Huahua Supplement".
Mr. Ma Xiaohe, "Research on Manichaeism and the History of the Ancient Western Regions", "Research on Xiapu Documents", "Messenger of Light - Mani and Manichaeism".
Mr. Rui Chuanming, "Oriental Manichaean Studies".
Mr. Yang Fuxue, "The Legend of Leshantang and Fujian Manichaeism".
Mr. Wang Jianchuan, "From Manichaeism to Mingjiao".