DID YOU KNOW?This seemingly ordinary element, like a hidden gem, exudes a unique light. After learning about its characteristics, you will find that it has an amazing charm.
DID YOU KNOW?It was not until 1885 that this element was first isolated from sphalerite by the German chemist Friedrich Wüller. For the first time, mankind has seen its true face of Lushan.
DID YOU KNOW?In today's rapid development of technology, the application of this element is also expanding. From the semiconductor industry to optical research, from medical devices to new energy development, its magic is vividly displayed in various fields. It is the strategic element - germanium.
Next, let me take you on a journey through the wonderful world of germanium and the commonly used methods of measurement.
The chemical symbol of germanium is Ge and the atomic number is 32. Germanium is a gray semi-metal with a crystalline structure similar to silicon. The following is a detailed introduction of the germanium element in different application fields:
1.Semiconductor industry: Germanium is widely used as a semiconductor material. It has similar semiconductor properties to silicon but is more stable at high temperatures. Germanium can be used to make solar cells, photodetectors, and other electronic devices.
2.Optics: Due to its high refractive index and transmittance, germanium has a wide range of applications in the field of optics. Germanium can be used to make infrared optics such as infrared windows, lenses, and prisms. It can also be used in the manufacture of lasers and fiber-optic communication equipment.
3.Medical field: Germanium is used in the manufacture of medical devices and medicines. Germanium compounds have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and can be used for arthritis, diabetes, and other diseases. Germanium can also be used to make medical components such as artificial bones and implants.
4.Fiber optics: Germanium can be used to make fiber optics devices such as optical fibers and fiber amplifiers. It has high transmittance and low optical loss, and can be used to transmit high-speed and long-distance optical signals.
5.Electronics industry: Germanium is used in the manufacture of electronic devices and circuits. It can be used as a base material for transistors and diodes. Due to its high mobility and short carrier lifetime, germanium can be used to manufacture high-speed electronic devices.
Germanium has a wide range of applications in semiconductors, optics, medical, and electronics. Its excellent properties make germanium an important material and promote the development of modern science and technology.
The germanium element is a semi-metal with physical properties located between silicon (Si) and tin (sn) in the periodic table. Here is a detailed description of the main physical properties of the germanium element:
1.Appearance: Germanium is a gray solid with a metallic luster. The density of germanium is about 5323 grams cubic centimeters. This makes it slightly heavier than silicon, but still a relatively light element. The hardness is about 60 to 65 (Mohs hardness), which is softer than other metals.
2.Crystal structure: Germanium has a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure. This structure allows germanium to exhibit good semiconductor properties at room temperature.
3.Melting Point: The melting point of germanium is about 9374 degrees Celsius (about 1619.)3 degrees Fahrenheit). This is a relatively low melting point, which allows germanium to be processed and prepared within a certain temperature range.
4.Boiling Point: The boiling point of germanium is about 2830 degrees Celsius (about 5132 degrees Fahrenheit). This is a relatively high boiling point that makes germanium stable at high temperatures.
5.Thermal conductivity: Germanium is an excellent conductor of heat, with a thermal conductivity of about 60 watts of m Kelvin (w (m·k)), making it useful in thermal management applications.
6.Electrical conductivity: Germanium is a semiconductor material that has a low electrical conductivity at room temperature but can be adjusted by doping. Doping germanium can make it a highly conductive material for semiconductor devices.
7.Optical properties: Germanium has good optical properties, including a high refractive index and a low absorption coefficient. This makes it widely used in infrared optics, such as infrared lenses and detectors.
8.Mechanical properties: Germanium is a brittle material that is prone to breakage. However, under certain conditions, its mechanical strength can be enhanced by appropriate process treatment.
9.Crystal growth: Germanium has a crystal structure similar to diamond with four covalent bonds around each atom. Germanium crystals are typically grown by techniques such as the Czochralski method or molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). These methods allow the preparation of high-quality single-crystal germanium materials for the fabrication of semiconductor devices.
Germanium is an important semiconductor material with a variety of useful physical properties, making it particularly suitable for applications such as infrared optics, semiconductor electronics, and thermal management. Its semiconducting properties make it important in electronic devices, while its optical properties make it widely used in infrared technology.
Germanium (germanium, symbol: Ge) is a chemical element with abundant chemical properties. Here is a detailed description of the main chemical properties of the germanium element:
1.Valency: Germanium usually occurs in the +4 oxidation state, which is its most stable oxidation state. It can also exist in the +2 oxidation state, but it is relatively unstable. The valency of germanium is mainly affected by the atoms around it.
2.Reactivity: Germanium is relatively stable at room temperature but reacts with oxygen, nitrogen, and some strong oxidizing agents. It reacts with oxygen to form germanium oxide (GEO2) or germanium oxide (GEO).
3.Solubility: Germanium is insoluble in water but can be dissolved under some acidic conditions to form ions of germanium. It can be dissolved in hydrofluoric acid (HF) to form germanate hydrofluorate.
4.Alloy formation: Germanium forms alloys with many other elements such as silicon germanium alloys (SiGe) and germanium-tin alloys (GeSN). These alloys have specific electronic and optical properties that make them suitable for the fabrication of semiconductor and optoelectronic devices.
5.Semiconductor Properties: Germanium is a semiconductor material that has a low electrical conductivity but can be modified with proper doping. By introducing dopants (such as arsenic, indium, or germanium itself) into germanium, n-type or p-type semiconductors can be realized, which are used in the preparation of electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, etc.
6.Optical properties: Germanium has good transparency in the infrared spectral range, so it is widely used in infrared optics. It is used in the preparation of infrared lenses, infrared detectors, and other infrared optical elements.
7.Chemical reactions: Germanium can synthesize a variety of compounds through chemical reactions, including germanates, germanium compounds, and organic germanium compounds. These compounds are useful in fields such as materials science, the chemical industry, and pharmaceutical preparation.
8.Isotopes: There are five stable isotopes of germanium, which are 70ge, 72ge, 73ge, 74ge, and 76ge. These isotopes have different abundances and can be used in earth science and astronomy research.
Germanium is a versatile element with rich chemical properties that are widely used in various fields such as the semiconductor industry, optoelectronics, infrared technology, and chemical preparation. Its semiconducting and optical properties make it an important material for electronic devices and optical devices.
Germanium (germanium, symbol: Ge) is a semimetallic element that has been studied relatively little in relation to the biological properties of biological systems, as it is generally not an essential element in living organisms, and high concentrations of germanium can have harmful effects on living organisms. Here is a detailed introduction about the biological properties of the germanium element:
1.Biostatic content: Germanium is relatively rare in nature and is usually found in rocks, soils, and minerals, but the amount of germanium in living organisms is usually low. In humans and other living organisms, germanium is present mainly because of trace amounts in the food chain.
2.Organism uptake: Organisms usually ingest germanium from food through their diet. Germanium can be found in some plants and microorganisms, but the intake is usually low enough to meet the physiological needs of the human body.
3.Physiological Functions: Germanium is not considered an essential element in living organisms because there are no known physiological functions or important metabolic pathways that require the presence of germanium. This is different from some other elements such as iron, calcium, or manganese, which have well-defined physiological functions.
4.Biological toxicity: High concentrations of germanium can have harmful effects on living organisms. In some experiments, long-term ingestion of large amounts of germanium has been found to be associated with damage to the nervous system, liver, and kidneys. Therefore, germanium is not considered a nutrient in living organisms but is considered potentially toxic.
5.Medical Applications: Although germanium is not an essential element, there was a time when the medical applications of germanium compounds were studied. However, over time, the toxicity and popularity of germanium compounds were recognized, and medical applications gradually decreased.
Germanium is less present in living organisms and is usually present in trace amounts in food, but is not considered an essential element in living organisms. High concentrations of germanium may have toxic effects on living organisms, so use caution in medical applications. The biological properties of germanium are primarily studied as a potentially toxic element, rather than as a key element in living systems.
Germanium (germanium, symbol: GE) is relatively widely distributed in nature, but is usually present in trace amounts and is not commonly found in high concentrations of minerals. The following is a detailed introduction to the distribution of germanium elements in nature:
1.Distribution in the Earth's crust: Germanium is relatively scattered in the Earth's crust and belongs to the rare elements. It has an abundance of about 7 parts per million in its crust and is low in more common elements such as oxygen, silicon, iron, etc. However, germanium is more abundant in the earth's crust than some other elements like silver, gold, uranium, etc.
2.Presence in minerals: Germanium is usually present in trace amounts in a variety of minerals, including sulfur-copper-zincite, sulfur-silver-germanium, germanite, and some ferromanganese minerals. Among them, sulfur-silver germanium ore is one of the minerals with relatively high germanium content, usually containing about 5% to 7% germanium.
3.Trace amounts in rocks and soils: Germanium can be present in trace amounts in various rocks and soils. Its distribution in the earth's crust is widespread, but the concentration is usually low. This means that extracting enough germanium from rocks and soil is an expensive and difficult job.
Trace amounts in springs and groundwater: Germanium can also be present in trace amounts in springs and groundwater. These water sources usually contain tiny amounts of germanium, but due to their dispersion, it is difficult to extract large amounts of germanium from them. 5.The mineral reserves of germanium are unevenly distributed across the globe. According to known data, the United States and China are the two countries with the largest germanium reserves in the world, accounting for 45% and 41% of the world's germanium reserves, respectively. Russia is also a country with a large number of germanium reserves, accounting for 10%. Whereas other countries have relatively small germanium reserves. The production of germanium is distributed among countries around the world, and China is the world's largest germanium producer, with China's germanium production reaching 95 tons in 2021, accounting for 68%. Other countries produce relatively small germanium, with Russia producing 5 tons of germanium and other countries producing 40 tons.
The distribution of germanium in nature is widespread but dispersed rather than being present in a particular ore in high concentrations. This dispersion makes germanium collection and extraction relatively difficult. As a result, germanium is often obtained by extracting from other minerals or from industrial residues** to meet the needs of a variety of applications, especially in the semiconductor industry and optoelectronics.
The mining and refining process of germanium usually includes the following steps, mainly extracting germanium from germanium-bearing ores such as sulphur-silver germanium. The following is a detailed introduction to the mining and refining process of germanium element:
1.Rock mining: First, ore mining engineers will find ore deposits that contain germanium, and usually sulfur-silver-germanium ore is one of the main **. The ore is then extracted from the ground or surface by blasting, drilling, mining, and other methods.
2.Crushing and grinding: The extracted ore usually contains large chunks of ore ore and impurities. The ore is then sent to a crushing and grinding plant, where it undergoes a process of crushing and grinding to turn the ore into a fine powder.
3.Flotation separation: After crushing and grinding, the fine powder ore is separated by flotation, which uses flotation agents and bubbles to separate germanium-containing minerals from other minerals. This step helps to increase the concentration of germanium.
4.Smelting: The separated germanium-containing minerals are further sent to the smelter for smelting. The process of smelting usually includes the following steps:
a.Hot leaching: The ore is usually heated at high temperatures to convert the germanium sulfide in it into germanium oxide. This is done by using air or oxygen in a high-temperature furnace.
b.Germanium oxide extraction: Germanium oxide is extracted, usually by chemical methods. This can include the use of sodium hydroxide or other chemical agents.
c.Reduction of germanium oxide: The extracted germanium oxide is then reduced, converting it into metallic germanium. High-temperature reduction reactions are usually used, using hydrogen or other reducing agents.
5.Refining: The extracted metal germanium undergoes a refining process to remove residual impurities and improve purity. Refining typically includes methods such as quartz column refining and vacuum distillation to obtain high-purity germanium.
6.Finished product preparation: The final high-purity germanium can be used in various applications such as semiconductor manufacturing, optoelectronic device manufacturing, etc. Depending on the end application needs, germanium can be cut, machined and prepared into the desired shape and specification of the finished product.
It is important to note that the mining and refining of germanium is a complex project, as germanium is usually present in trace amounts and requires highly pure germanium for high-tech fields such as semiconductors and optoelectronics. Therefore, the process of producing high-purity germanium requires strict control and technology. In addition, and the reuse of discarded germanium materials is also a common way to meet demand.
Common detection methods for germanium include the following:
1.Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS): Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a commonly used quantitative analysis method that uses absorption spectra of specific wavelengths to determine the concentration of germanium in a sample. It atomizes the sample to be measured in a flame, and then measures the absorption intensity of germanium in the sample by a spectroscopic instrument. This method is suitable for the detection of germanium at higher concentrations.
2.Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES): Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry is a highly sensitive and selective analytical method that is widely used for multi-element analysis. It determines the specific wavelength and intensity of germanium emitted in a spectroscopic instrument by atomizing the sample and forming a plasma.
3.Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS): Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry is a highly sensitive and high-resolution analytical method for isotope ratio determination and trace element analysis. It determines the mass-to-charge ratio of the element germanium in a mass spectrometry instrument by atomizing the sample and forming a plasma.
Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy (AFS): AFS is a highly sensitive analytical method for the determination of trace amounts of germanium. The germanium atoms in the sample are excited into fluorescence, and the concentration of germanium is determined by detecting the fluorescent signal emitted. The advantages of this method are its high sensitivity and low detection limits. Spectrophotometry: This method uses a colorimetric with a specific reagent to react with germanium ions to form a colored compound, and the amount of germanium elements is determined based on the absorbance or color shade of the colored compound generated. These methods are widely used in laboratory and industrial fields for the quantitative analysis and quality control of germanium. Choosing the right method depends on factors such as the type of sample, the required detection limit, and the accuracy of the detection.
In elemental measurement, atomic absorption method has high accuracy and sensitivity, which provides an effective means to study the chemical properties, compound composition and content of elements.
Next, we use atomic absorption to measure the amount of germanium element. The specific steps are as follows:
Prepare the sample to be tested. The sample to be measured is prepared into a solution, which is generally digested with mixed acids to facilitate subsequent measurements.
Choose the right atomic absorption spectrometer. According to the nature of the sample to be measured and the range of germanium content to be measured, the appropriate atomic absorption spectrometer is selected.
Adjust the parameters of the atomic absorption spectrometer. According to the element to be measured and the instrument model, adjust the parameters of the atomic absorption spectrometer, including the light source, atomizer, detector, etc.
Measure the absorbance of the germanium element. The sample to be measured is placed in an atomizer and a specific wavelength of optical radiation is emitted through the light source, and the germanium element to be measured absorbs this light radiation, resulting in an energy level transition. The absorbance of the germanium element is measured by a detector.
Calculate the amount of germanium element. Based on the absorbance and the standard curve, the amount of germanium is calculated.
The following are the specific parameters used in the measurement of germanium by an instrument.
Germanium (Ge) standard: metal germanium granules or flakes (99.)99％）。
Method: Weigh 1000 g of metal germanium, dissolved in a small amount of aqua regia, diluted to 1 L with water, the concentration of this solution GE is 1000 g ml. Store in a polyethylene bottle protected from light.
Analysis parameters: wavelength (nm) 2652
Spectral bandwidth (nm) 02
Filter factor 06
Recommended lamp current (mA) 6
Negative high pressure (V) 35650
Burner head height (mm) 12
Integration time(s) 3
Air pressure and flow rate (mp, ml min) 025，5000
Laughing gas pressure and flow rate (mp, ml min) 022，4000
Acetylene pressure and flow rate (mp, ml min) 01，4000
The linear correlation coefficient is 09994
Characteristic concentration (g ml) 11
Calculation method: Continuous method.
Solution acidity 05％ hcl
Measurements**: Calibration curves:
Interference: No significant interference was observed. Low levels of germanium can be measured using hydride generation techniques.
In practice, it is necessary to select the appropriate measurement method according to the specific needs of the site. These methods are widely used in laboratories and industries for the analysis and detection of germanium elements.
After delving into the properties and applications of the germanium element, we can draw the following conclusions. The germanium element, as a rare metal element, has unique physical and chemical properties that make it widely used in many high-tech fields. Although germanium was discovered and utilized relatively late, with the advancement of science and technology, the importance of germanium has become increasingly prominent.
Germanium has superior electrical conductivity and is an important material in electronic devices. Whether it is the manufacture of high-purity germanium single crystals or the development of germanium-based semiconductors, they are all driving the development of the electronics industry. In addition, the application of germanium in fields such as optical fiber communications, solar cells, and infrared optics is also becoming increasingly popular. This is because germanium's high refractive index and low loss properties make it an ideal material for these fields.
The chemical stability of germanium makes it also widely used in the chemical industry. For example, germanium catalysts can be used in many chemical reactions, such as ammonia synthesis and petroleum cracking. The high temperature resistance of germanium-based alloys also makes them important applications in the aerospace industry.
However, there are also some challenges and problems with the germanium element. For example, the rarity and high cost of germanium limit its application in certain fields. In addition, the toxicity of germanium also requires more research and attention. However, with the continuous advancement of technology, we expect that the application of germanium will be further expanded in the future.
With its unique physical and chemical properties and wide range of applications, germanium has demonstrated its importance in modern science and technology. Further research and development of germanium will provide more possibilities for our future scientific and technological development.