Written on the front:
The World as Will and Appearance is Schopenhauer's masterpiece, which mainly focuses on two core concepts: will and appearance. First of all, structurally, the book is divided into two parts: the first part is "The World as a Preliminary Theory of Appearances" and the second part is "The World as a Preliminary Theory of the Will".
In the first part, Schopenhauer mainly discusses the concept of "appearance". He pointed out that the world is made up of appearances that are governed by the principle of sufficient reason, equivalent to what Kant called the "phenomenal world". The principle of sufficient reason states that everything has a reason or reason for its existence. In this section, Schopenhauer also gives a critique of Kant's philosophy.
In the second part, Schopenhauer mainly discusses the concept of "will". He pointed out that the world is made up of a will, which is not governed by the principle of sufficient reason, which is equivalent to what Kant called "the ontological world" or "the thing itself". According to Schopenhauer, the human body and the will are one and the same thing, because the human body is the object of the world of appearances, and the will is the object of the ontological world.
In addition, Schopenhauer also conducted an in-depth study of solipsist idealism, metaphysics of will, irrationalist philosophical positions, pessimistic outlook on life and philosophical liberation. He linked the metaphysical problems of the Western tradition with the question of the meaning of life, starting with epistemology and summarizing ethics, which together constituted a grand voluntarist metaphysical system.
The World as Will and Representation can be broadly divided into four parts:
Epistemology
The epistemological part of The World as Will and Representation focuses on the human cognitive capacity and its relationship to the world.
Schopenhauer criticized the traditional rationalist epistemology in his epistemology, arguing that human cognition is limited and unable to recognize the nature of the world. Human cognition is only the perception of the phenomenal world, and cannot touch the essence of the world. He emphasized the importance of intuitive understanding, arguing that it is only through intuitive understanding that one can truly understand the world. In addition, he also discussed the relationship between subject and object in cognition, as well as the role of concepts and language in cognition.
In general, Schopenhauer's epistemology emphasizes the relativity and subjectivity of knowing, while also emphasizing the importance of intuitive knowing. He argues that it is only through intuitive knowledge that human beings can truly understand the world, and traditional rationalist epistemology cannot achieve this goal. In addition, he also wrote about the relationship between subject and object in cognition, as well as the role of concepts and language in cognition, which provided important inspiration for later philosophers.
Natural Philosophy
In "The World as Will and Appearance", the essence and laws of nature are mainly discussed. According to Schopenhauer, nature is driven by a will, which is single, purposeless, and unchangeable. Therefore, the laws of nature are also immutable, and human beings can only adapt to the laws of nature, but cannot change them.
In addition, Schopenhauer's natural philosophy also emphasized the relationship between appearance and will. He believes that the world of representations is constituted according to the principle of the objectification of will, and the different stages from minerals, plants, animals to humans are all manifestations of will. Some of these appearances are blindly revealed, while others are consciously manifested. Man, on the other hand, has the clearest appearance of the will, and is the most qualified to say that "the world is my appearance", because he is self-aware and able to understand all things through his own comprehension of the will.
In addition, Schopenhauer discussed the role of time and space in natural philosophy. He believes that time and space are the two basic forms of the representational world, the product of the objectification of the will. Time and space are indivisible, and together they form the basis of the world of representations.
In general, Schopenhauer's natural philosophy emphasizes the important role of the will in nature, but also the relationship between appearance and the will, as well as the role of time and space in natural philosophy. These ideas provided important inspiration for later philosophers and new perspectives on human knowledge and understanding of the natural world.
Aesthetics
Schopenhauer's aesthetic thought mainly focuses on the essence of beauty, the relationship between art and beauty, and aesthetic experience.
First of all, he believes that beauty is an idea, absolute and eternal, not limited by time and space. This idea is expressed through art, which is the highest form of beauty. Schopenhauer emphasized the importance of art and beauty, believing that they are an important part of the human spiritual life, capable of bringing pleasure and enjoyment.
Secondly, Schopenhauer understood the relationship between art and beauty. He believes that art is the expression of beauty, the discovery and creation of beauty. Artists discover and create beauty through intuitive perception, while the audience feels and understands beauty through aesthetic experience. In this process, a tacit understanding and resonance are formed between the artist and the audience, which together constitute the world of art and beauty.
Finally, Schopenhauer also discusses the question of aesthetic experience. He believes that aesthetic experience is a disinterested pleasure, the joy and satisfaction that people feel when they appreciate beauty and art. This pleasure is different from sensual pleasure and rational pleasure, it is a unique and pure pleasure that allows people to escape the suffering and troubles of reality for a while.
In general, Schopenhauer's aesthetic thought emphasizes the nature and value of beauty and art, and at the same time addresses the question of aesthetic experience. These ideas provided important inspiration for later philosophers and aesthetes, and also provided new perspectives for human cognition and understanding of art and beauty.
Ethics
In the fourth part of Ethics as the World as Will and Appearance, Schopenhauer focuses on the following aspects:
The Nature of Morality: According to Schopenhauer, the essence of morality lies in the affirmation and negation of the will to life. He believes that the will to life is the foundation of all things, and morality is the norm and constraint on the will to live. Therefore, the essence of morality lies in the affirmation and negation of the will to life, that is, the affirmation of acts such as goodness and justice, and the denial of acts such as ** and injustice.
Standards of Ethical Behavior: Schopenhauer believed that standards of ethical behavior should be based on the principles of compassion and justice. Compassion refers to empathy and concern for the suffering and misfortune of others, while justice refers to treating all people equally without taking sides. He argues that only actions based on these two principles are truly moral behaviors.
The relationship between morality and happiness: Schopenhauer understood the relationship between morality and happiness. He argues that while moral behavior itself may not lead to immediate happiness, in the long run, it is necessary to achieve true happiness. Because it is only through ethical behavior that one can attain inner peace and tranquility and thus true happiness.
The Importance of Moral Education: Schopenhauer emphasized the importance of moral education. He believed that it was only through education and practice that people could gradually develop true moral qualities and behavioral Xi. He proposed a theory of moral education based on compassion and justice, and emphasized the important role of family, school, and society in moral education.
In general, Schopenhauer's ethical thought emphasizes the nature and standards of morality, as well as the relationship between morality and happiness and the importance of moral education. These ideas provided important inspiration for later philosophers and ethicists, as well as new perspectives on human knowledge and understanding of morality.
Summary: The World as Will and Appearance The book focuses on the two core concepts of will and appearance and the relationship between them, and also involves Schopenhauer's criticism and reflection on Kant's philosophy and other philosophical issues.
Together, these four parts constitute the main content of The World as Will and Appearance, and they are interrelated and mutually supportive, forming a complete philosophical system.