At the end of the 19th century, in that turbulent era, the East Asian continent staged a far-reaching war - the Sino-French War. Among them, the Battle of Bac Ninh, as a key battle of this war, not only determined the fate of Vietnam, but also profoundly affected the future of the Qing Dynasty. When the French team completed the assembly of Bac Ninh in March 1884, the city in northern Vietnam was about to become the focus of a strategic game. The clash of two civilizations reached its culmination here.
In the midst of the war, the turmoil and unrest within the Qing Dynasty also intensified. The Military Aircraft Department, the institution that controlled the military and political power of the Qing Dynasty, faced unprecedented challenges. With the unfavorable progress of the war, the disagreement between the top and central leaders of the DPRK and China on how to deal with the aggressive strategy of France intensified, and the Empress Dowager Cixi's dissatisfaction with the Military Aircraft Department became increasingly apparent. The loss of Bac Ninh was not only a strategic defeat of the Qing army, but also a fuse for internal contradictions and conflicts in the Qing Dynasty.
The beginning of Vietnam's fall to a French colony.
On August 25, 1881, Vietnam, a small country in Southeast Asia, officially signed the First Treaty of Hue, which was not just a piece of paper, it symbolized that Vietnam had since become a French colony. Nguyen Phuc Thanh, the emperor of Vietnam, was undoubtedly in mixed feelings at the moment when the treaty was signed. He was confronted by a powerful Western country, France, whose military and technological prowess was far beyond Vietnam's.
France's ambitions are not limited to Vietnam, and its actual reach is reaching throughout Southeast Asia and beyond. Vietnam, a country with a long history, has long been under the influence of Chinese culture and politics. As its suzerain, the Qing Dynasty naturally found it difficult to sit idly by and watch France's behavior. The fall of Vietnam was not only the loss of an independent state, but also a direct challenge to the influence of the Qing Dynasty.
Looking back at this period of history, we can see that the relationship between the Qing Dynasty and Vietnam was not simple. As a suzerain, the Qing Dynasty had a deep cultural and political influence on Vietnam. The relationship between the two countries is not only a relationship between the suzerains and vassals under the tributary system, but also deep cultural exchanges and economic exchanges. Therefore, when France's aggression became apparent, the Qing Dynasty's response was not purely a political consideration, but also a defense of the traditional sphere of influence.
The aggressive actions of France were planned for a long time. Since the middle of the 19th century, with the deepening of the Industrial Revolution, European powers began to look for new markets and resource locations. France, as one of the major powers in Europe, has long set its sights on Southeast Asia, which is rich in resources and geographically important. Vietnam, located in the heart of Southeast Asia, rich in natural resources and strategically located, made it a preferred target for French expansion.
The signing of the First Hue Treaty was a great disaster for Vietnam. The treaty not only stripped Vietnam of its sovereignty, but also made it part of the French colonial empire. The Vietnamese Emperor Nguyen Phuc Thanh and his imperial court were almost powerless in the face of the mighty French. The content of the treaty included harsh conditions such as land cession, opening of ** ports, and compensation for huge war reparations, all of which directly affected Vietnam's national interests and people's lives.
For the Qing Dynasty, the fall of Vietnam was not only an encroachment on its traditional sphere of influence, but also a serious threat to the regional balance in East Asia. As the most powerful country in East Asia at that time, the Qing Dynasty had long regarded itself as the "first country". In his view, the fall of Vietnam was not only a challenge to its own prestige, but also a shock to the stability of the entire East Asian region.
The outbreak of the Sino-French War.
Relations between China and France deteriorated dramatically as the French occupation of Vietnam intensified, and finally in December 1883, an inevitable war broke out. This war is not only a battle for territory, but also a collision between two different civilizations. France, a typical Western power, carries the advanced ** and tactics after the Industrial Revolution, and opposite it is the Qing Empire, which is deeply rooted in the traditional agricultural civilization.
In the early days of the war, the two sides had already shown obvious differences in their strategic choices. Taking advantage of its naval superiority, the French team adopted the tactics of rapid movement and concentration of forces, and carried out quick and accurate strikes on key cities in northern Vietnam. However, the Qing Dynasty, as a traditional power in East Asia, still stuck its military strategy on land defense and large-scale crowd tactics.
With the gradual advance of the front, the French ** team had already approached Bac Ninh in early 1884. The strategic location of this region is extremely important, not only as the northern gateway to Vietnam, but also as a key area on the border between the Qing Dynasty and Vietnam. Once Bac Ninh is lost, the French army will directly threaten the border security of the Qing Dynasty, which is unacceptable to the Qing Empire.
Within the Qing Dynasty, there were serious differences in attitudes about war. On the one hand, some ** advocated continuing to fight, resisting French aggression to the death, and defending the country's sovereignty and territorial integrity. They believed that only through war could the French threat be completely resolved and the Qing Dynasty's supremacy in East Asia could be maintained. However, on the other hand, there are also ** people who believe that instead of going head-to-head with the French ** team on the battlefield, it is better to seek peace talks, so as to avoid further consumption of national strength and the country falling into a deeper crisis.
The discipline of the Qing army.
The Qing army was not only facing pressure from external enemies, but also internal discipline problems that became difficult to stabilize. The alcoholism of commanders Xu Yanxu and Huang Guilan is no longer a secret in the army. This kind of behavior spread among the top echelons of the army and undoubtedly caused great damage to the discipline of the army. Xu Yanxu and Huang Guilan, as the leaders of the army, were supposed to be role models for the soldiers, but they indulged in alcohol and forgot their duties.
More seriously, this culture of indiscipline also affected ordinary soldiers. Some soldiers in the Qing army began to imitate their commanders and became alcoholic. In the high-pressure environment of war, alcohol seems to have become a means of escapism. However, this behavior seriously affects the combat readiness of the army, making it impossible for soldiers to maintain due alertness and combat effectiveness in the face of battle.
In addition to the problem of alcoholism, the predatory behavior of the Qing soldiers was even more shocking. In some war zones, Qing soldiers forcibly occupied civilian houses, plundered property, and even violated women, which seriously violated the army's discipline regulations. This kind of lawless behavior not only damaged the image of the Qing army, but also caused a fundamental change in the attitude of the Vietnamese people, who originally had a favorable impression of the Qing Dynasty. The Vietnamese people originally had a kind of cultural respect and trust for the Qing Dynasty, but these actions of the Qing army made them feel deeply disappointed and angry.
The change in the attitude of the Vietnamese people had a direct impact on the combat effectiveness of the Qing army. In the past, when the Qing army entered Vietnam to fight, it was often able to get the support and help of the local people, which was extremely valuable for the expeditionary army. However, due to the plunder and atrocities of the Qing soldiers, this support and help became scarce. The Vietnamese people began to avoid and even resist the Qing army, which made the Qing army's war in Vietnam more difficult.
Defeat in the Battle of Bac Ninh.
By March 1884, with the close assembly of the French army in Bac Ninh, the Sino-French war entered a new stage. The French moved swiftly and precisely, demonstrating a high degree of professionalism in the execution of military strategy and tactics. Bac Ninh, as an important city in northern Vietnam, was not only strategically significant, but also the main defensive stronghold of the Qing army in the region. Once lost, it not only meant a major strategic mistake by the Qing army, but also symbolized a decisive victory for France's military expansion in Southeast Asia.
The outbreak of the Battle of Bac Ninh took place almost overnight. The French army used the darkness of night as a cover and launched an all-out attack on Bac Ninh. Their army consisted of experienced soldiers and was armed with the most advanced ** of the time, including heavy and rapid artillery, which put great pressure on the Qing army's defenses. Although the Qing army was outnumbered, the lack of effective command and combat training, as well as the widespread lax discipline among the soldiers, made them helpless in the face of the French attack.
As the battle continued, the defense line in Bac Ninh was gradually broken through by the French. Qing commanders attempted to reorganize their positions during the battle, but most of these efforts failed due to the lack of effective means of communication and a unified command system. In addition, the widespread panic among the Qing soldiers accelerated the collapse of the defensive line. When Bac Ninh finally fell, many Qing soldiers had already begun to retreat, and even collapsed.
The fall of Bac Ninh was a huge blow to the Qing Dynasty. This was not only because of the military defeat of the Qing army, but also because this defeat directly affected the status and prestige of the Qing Dynasty in the international community. In the following days, the French army captured Lang Giang, Tai Nguyen, Hung Hoa and other places, and these successive victories not only consolidated French military rule in Vietnam, but also showed the vulnerability of the Qing army in the face of modern warfare.
The defeat of the Qing army in the Battle of Bac Ninh was not only a mismatch in tactics and equipment, but also a deeper reason that the overall organizational structure and combat concept of the Qing army lagged behind the times. Compared with the highly centralized and well-trained professional army of the French army, the Qing army relied more on local recruitment and traditional combat methods, which was particularly insufficient in the face of a modern army.
Military and political changes at the end of the Qing Dynasty.
The defeat in the Battle of Bac Ninh was a huge wake-up call for the Qing Dynasty and shook the entire imperial court. The Qing Dynasty after the defeat urgently needed a deep reflection and reform of the military and political system. In this context, the Military Aircraft Department, as the highest military decision-making and administrative body of the Qing Dynasty, naturally became the focus of reform. Since its establishment during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, the Military Aircraft Department has always undertaken the responsibility of handling major military and political affairs of the state, and its efficiency and the correctness of its decision-making are directly related to the national fortunes of the Qing Dynasty.
After the Battle of Bac Ninh, the Qing Dynasty carried out an unprecedented large-scale adjustment and reform of the Military Aircraft Department. The immediate trigger for this reform was the fiasco in the Battle of Bac Ninh, but the underlying reason was the dissatisfaction of the Qing Dynasty with the current military command system and the urgent need to improve its future war capabilities. Yi, as the Minister of Military Aircraft, he and several other senior ** were transferred from their original posts, reflecting the Qing Dynasty's deep dissatisfaction with the defeat and the understanding of the urgent need for reform at the military command level.
Yi's work in the Military Aircraft Division has been controversial. Although he used to be a capable leader, in the Battle of Beining, the Qing army's chaotic command, mistakes in strategic deployment, and misjudgment of the battlefield situation all reflected to a certain extent the deficiencies of the Military Aircraft Department, especially Yi and others, in war management and decision-making. Therefore, after the defeat, the Qing Dynasty decided to carry out a major reform of the Military Aircraft Department, hoping to improve its decision-making and execution efficiency by adjusting personnel and improving the management system.
The restructuring and reform of the Military Aircraft Department includes the removal of key personnel, the reorganization of the decision-making process, and the strengthening of supervision and training of military commanders. Among them, the decision to remove Yi and others is particularly eye-catching, which not only marks the punishment of the Qing Dynasty for the defeat in the Battle of Bac Ninh, but also symbolizes the Qing Dynasty's hope to reshuffle the military aircraft department through such reforms, in the hope of saving its declining situation.
However, despite these efforts made by the Qing Dynasty, due to various internal and external factors, these reforms failed to fundamentally change the decline of the Qing Dynasty. On the one hand, the bureaucratic system within the Qing Dynasty was rigid and corrupt, making it difficult to implement reforms in depth. On the other hand, in the face of increasing external pressure, the Qing Dynasty's national strength was gradually insufficient to support a radical reform. Therefore, although this reform slowed down the decline of the Qing Dynasty to a certain extent, it did not fundamentally reverse the fate of the Qing Dynasty.
Guan Wei. The main peace or the main war: an analysis of Li Hongzhang's attitude towards the Sino-French war[J].Journal of Central China Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences), 2012, 51(S1): 108-114