In about 3100 BC, Egypt entered the predynastic period, which was ruled by the first pharaoh, Narmay. Antiquarians disagree on the identity of Narmer, with some believing that he was Menes, who is recorded in ancient Egyptian texts as the first king and unifier.
Although the date of the Predynastic period was established before archaeological excavations, recent discoveries indicate that the development of this period was very slow, so the question of when it ended has been disputed.
According to tradition, predynastic Egypt refers to the period of Naqada III from 6000 BC to 3000 BC, which is also referred to by some as "Dynasty Zero" or "Dynasty 0".
The predynastic period is often divided into cultural epochs, each named after the place where it was first discovered.
In 3000 BC, Egyptian civilization reached its first peak, and the Old Kingdom was born. This was the ** era of civilization on the lower Nile, and the beginning of the so-called "kingdom" period.
The splendor of the Old Kingdom is inextricably linked to the fact that the last king of the early dynastic period of Egypt was related to the first two kings of the Old Kingdom, and its royal residence is still in Ineboheg, known as Memphis.
The Old Kingdom is seen as a period from the Third to the Sixth Dynasty, while some Egyptologists also include the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of Memphis. Although the Old Kingdom period was a period of internal security and prosperity for Egypt, it then entered a period of relative decline in the ** and culture, which Egyptologists call the first intermediate period.
During the Old Kingdom, the king of Egypt was seen as a divine being, who had sole power and subjects who had to serve him and dedicate their wealth. Under King Chaeuse, Memphis became the royal capital of Egypt, where he established his court.
Under his rule, Saqqara began a new era of architecture, and Imhotep was the great architect of this period, who created buildings built of stone and designed a new architectural form - the step pyramid.
The Old Kingdom was famous for building a large number of pyramids, which served as tombs for the pharaohs. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is often referred to as the "Age of the Pyramids".
During the Egyptian kingdom from 2055 to 1650 BC, the aristocratic class was equal in power with the priestly class, competing with each other for power. However, the glory of this period did not last long, and a group of foreign invaders called Hyksos invaded Egypt with their advanced chariots and iron weapons, leading to the collapse of the ** kingdom.
After this, the Hyksos established their own monarchy, which ruled Egypt for about 200 years.
The New Kingdom, from 1550 to 1069 BC, was a glorious period in Egyptian history. It began with the revolt of Pharaoh Ahmos, who used the chariots, horses, and iron skills of Hyksos to fend off foreign enemies and successfully regain control of Lower Egypt.
The pharaohs of the New Kingdom had more power than they did during the Middle Kingdom, but still had to balance their relationship with the priests and nobles. At the same time, a rising middle class emerged in Egyptian society, and the idea of the afterlife was widespread throughout Egypt, not just the nobility and temples.
Although no pyramids were built during this period, the rock-carved tombs of the Valley of the Kings show the prosperity of this period. Religious controversies also undermined the internal peace of Egypt on several occasions, especially during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenathon, who sought to promote monotheism among his subjects.
During the Eighteenth Dynasty, the Amarna period was a short but significant period, when Amenhotep IV (i.e., Akhnathon) ruled Egypt. He was a revolutionary ruler, and his reforms were not only one of many, but one of the most important, implemented during his reign.
Ahnathon's name translates to "Athon's Horizon" because his reforms most notably demonstrated the rejection of traditional Egyptian polytheism in favor of an almost monotheistic system of worshipping the solar disc "Aton".
In the reforms of Ahnatun, the worship of Akhnaton was the most important and the most controversial. He also moved the royal palace of Thebes to Amarna and ordered a change in the aesthetics of art, which became known as the Amarna style.
The Amarna style is characterized by depictions of human subjects with elongated heads, necks, and elongated arms and legs. In the art of the Amarna era, the androgynous depictions of males are more pronounced, especially the depiction of Ahnatun.
In contrast to traditional Egyptian images of pharaohs, the image of Akhenatan often features broad hips, prominent breasts, abdomen, and thighs, all of which are associated with femininity.
The essence of ancient Egyptian art lies in its functionality, and the creation of art is entirely aimed at satisfying a certain religion or ideology. This is evident in the evolution of artistic styles, which, although different from dynasty to dynasty, remain the same in their three main principles: frontality, composite composition, and hierarchical scale.
These characteristics began to develop from the early dynastic period, were refined during the Old Kingdom, and eventually became the basis of ancient Egyptian art, and continued in an adaptive manner throughout the historical period.
The first principle emphasizes the positive, meaning that the artwork should be displayed directly to the audience. Just like treating a real person, each piece should be an individual with the ability to express.
Therefore, whoever you are representing, you should be as clear as possible about your identity. The guidelines of the Old Kingdom and the grid system that was later developed during the Middle Kingdom period both ensured that the work of art was axially symmetrical, proportionally coordinated, and, most importantly, reproducible so that it could be identified.
The second principle is composite composition, which also helps people better identify works of art. To ensure that the viewer can accurately judge what they are seeing, the artists use a variety of perspectives.
While Egyptian art often included descriptive text, due to the low literacy rate, artwork became another means of communication to convey the same message.
The human form is the best example of composite composition. In most two-dimensional reliefs, the head, legs, and feet are usually viewed from the side, while the torso faces the viewer directly. The principle of hierarchical scale reveals the relative status in society, with higher numbers indicating higher status.
Apart from the gods, kings usually have the highest status. However, this does not mean that physical differences are overlooked. For example, females often behave younger than males, and children retain the features and proportions of **, but are significantly smaller.
In addition to the three main characteristics, there are other characteristics that help determine the specific period of the work. The proportions of the human body are one of the most unique, as they differ in different kingdoms.
In the Old Kingdom, the male figure had broad shoulders and a slender torso with pronounced musculature. Whereas, women have narrower shoulders and waist, longer legs, and shorter torsos.
During the Six Dynasties, the image of men changed significantly, they no longer had muscular shoulders and their eyes became larger. To maintain a balance of these proportions, the Egyptians applied eight criteria to measure various parts of the body.
These guidelines are located at the top of the head, hairline, bottom of the neck, armpits, top of the elbows, bottom of the ribcage, top of the thighs, bottom of the hips, knees, and mid-calves.
From the sole of the foot to the hairline, it is also divided into three thirds, which are located between the sole of the foot and the knee, between the knee and the elbow, and between the elbow and the hairline. In the Fifth Dynasty, broad shoulders also occupied a third of the length of the body.
These proportions not only help us to identify and replicate the art form, but they are also linked to the Egyptian ideals of order and religious beliefs, namely the sun god and the flooding of the Nile.