LiteratureJade
Like the traditional dynasties, the management institutions of the Yuan Dynasty were also divided into three systems: **, army, and supervision, and at the same time, there were special institutions to serve the court. However, due to the vast territory of the Yuan Dynasty, the complex ethnic composition, and the inherent expansion genes, the system of the Yuan Dynasty is very different from the system of the traditional dynasty.
Same as Jin Guo,The bureaucracy of the Yuan Dynasty was also a provincial responsibility systemIn the Jin Dynasty, the Shangshu Province was the ruler of the country, while the Yuan Dynasty was governed by the Zhongshu Province, which was responsible for the operation of the civil system.
However, in order to prevent the emergence of powerful ministers, the position of Zhongshu Ling in the Yuan Dynasty was not permanent, and the left and right prime ministers below the Zhongshu Order were the highest officials in the imperial administrative system. But this could not curb the emergence of powerful ministers from the system at all, and the Yuan Dynasty finally appeared such powerful ministers as Yan Tiemur, Boyan, and Toto.
If you look at it this way, the most effective means to prevent the appearance of powerful ministers are:Like the Tang and Song dynasties, or the Ming and Qing dynasties, the emperor directly commanded the six divisions
Like the traditional dynasties, the Yuan Dynasty Zhongshu Province also had six ministries as the executive body of the imperial court
The Ministry of Officials is responsible for the evaluation, promotion, transfer and other personnel work; The household department is responsible for population statistics, tax records, banknotes and other related financial work; In addition to the liturgical work, the Ministry of Rites is also responsible for the drafting of the system for schools and religions; The military department is mainly responsible for the population of the military cantonment, the post station, and the allocation of livestock needed by the military; The duties of the Penal Department are to draft criminal decrees, review death penalty cases, register the families of criminals and register confiscation of property; The duties of the Ministry of Works were to take charge of the government workshops, build castles, select craftsmen and officials, and recruit the labor needed for the construction of the project.
However, the military department of the Yuan Dynasty was completely ignorant of military affairs, purely a logistics department, and even the post station affairs it was responsible for were transferred to the Tongzheng Yuan in 1320.
There is also the Criminal Department, although it replaces the previous Dali Temple's case review power and is the highest judicial organ, but it still cannot cover cases involving the Mongols and the Vultures. The Yuan Dynasty stipulated:The Mongol case was heard by Zalu Khuchi of the Dazong Zhengfu; The cases of the Vultures and the Semu were tried by the Metropolitan Protectorate。If a case involves people of different nationalities at the same time, a temporary trial team of Mongols and Han Chinese is responsible for hearing the case.
It also provided a certain degree of protection to the Mongol headquarters, which was in charge of the military, and the Semu people, who were in charge of finance.
As for the locality, it was managed by the "Xingzhongshu Province" set up in various places by Zhongshu Province, and the Yuan Dynasty had a total of 11 provinces, and the provinces were directly under the orders of Zhongshu Province. The provinces below are prefectures, prefectures, and counties, and each level is supervised by a Daru Huachi appointed by the imperial court.
That is to say,The province is only a branch of the province of ZhongshuThe Yuan Dynasty did not have a mature bureaucratic system to manage the localities.
In addition to the six departments of Zhongshu Province and the local provinces, the Yuan Dynasty also had some professional institutions
The Department of Agriculture, established in 1261, was responsible for agriculture, sericulture, and irrigation. The Metropolitan Water Superintendent, established in 1291, was in charge of water conservancy business; The Municipal Maritime Division, established in 1277, was in charge of maritime affairs.
At the same time, the Imperial Historical Observatory also copied the practice of Zhongshu Province and set up "Imperial Historical Platforms" in various places, butThe Yuan Dynasty's "Xingyu Shitai" was divided into two types: long-term and short-termFor example, the Xingyu Shitai in Jiangnan and Shaanxi were long-term, and the Xingyu Shitai in Hexi and Yunnan were abolished in 1283 and 1297 respectively.
Due to the wide coverage, the number of imperial history groups in the Yuan Dynasty was also relatively large, for example, there were 32 supervising imperial histories in Dadu, and 28 and 20 supervising imperial histories in Jiangnan and Shaanxi respectively.
For the high-level ** of the Imperial History Terrace, the Yuan Dynasty was also basically held by the Mongols and Semu people, and only the relatively low-grade Zhengqipin Supervision Imperial History was open to the Han people.
As for the military, the Yuan dynasty completely isolated it from other institutions. In the perception of the Mongols:The administrative bureaucracy is sinicized; The army system is Mongolian
In order to maintain the military superiority of the Mongol headquarters, the Yuan Dynasty completely transferred all the operations under the jurisdiction of the military department to the Privy Council, which was established in 1263, which not only separated the military from the administrative and supervision systems, but also kept the civilian officials secret.
The record of the Yuan History is: "The secret affairs of the world's armor are in charge." ”
Although the military department of the Song Dynasty was also elevated, and the Privy Council was responsible for the military, it was still able to manage part of the military business, while the Yuan Dynasty completely turned the military department into a logistics and miscellaneous department.
The military personnel of the Yuan Dynasty were divided into Han army, Mongol army and new annex army according to ethnic compositionThe Han army consisted of northern Han Chinese, Khitans, Jurchens, and Goryeo; The Mongol army consisted of Mongols; The new annex army consisted of Han Chinese from Jiangnan
For the cowardice of Genghis Khan's time, Kublai Khan expanded it into a Su Wei, half of which were Mongols and Semu people, and half were Han Chinese. The guards are managed by the Privy Council, the highest military body.
However, the power of the Privy Council could not cover the local army, and the local garrisons of the Yuan Dynasty were all drawn from the Wanhu Prefecture, which was responsible for the military affairs of each province.
In the event of an emergency, the Yuan Dynasty would also temporarily set up a "Privy Council", but it would generally be revoked after the mission was over.
The military attachés of the Yuan Dynasty were mainly held by Mongols and Semu people, and the hereditary system was implemented。Although this ensured the loyalty of the military to the empire to a certain extent, because the label of the individual and family was deeply embedded in the army and the Privy Council could not directly manage it, this also led to the military business that the Privy Council could manage was limited to the capital and its vicinity. These 10,000 households and thousands of households later essentially became warlords with strong imperial independence, and they gradually distanced themselves from the imperial court.
In addition, the kings who were divided into feudal areas in the north were also independent individuals, and they were local powerful factions that integrated military power, civil power, and judicial power. Like Wanhu, they were the main reasons for the rapid collapse of the Yuan Dynasty.
In addition to the administrative, supervising, and military systems, the Yuan Dynasty also had institutions dedicated to serving the royal family, such as the Xuanhui Yuan, which was established in 1278 to manage internal affairs such as the royal diet, replacing the previous business that was previously in charge of the family.
In addition, institutions such as the Taishi Academy, the Si Tianjian, the Huihui Si Tianjian, and the Tai Hospital are also professional services for the royal family.
In addition to the above institutions, the Yuan Dynasty also set up a number of other institutions to cover the business of the empire
In 1264, with the relocation of the capital of the Yuan Dynasty to Dadu, the Hanlin and National History Institute, a professional institution for compiling the history of Liao and Jin, was also established at the same time. In addition to the Hanlin and National History Academy, there is also the Mongolian Hanlin Academy, which is responsible for drafting Mongolian edicts and translating official documents from Mongolian into Chinese or other languages as copies.
At the same time, the Mongolian Hanlin Academy is also responsible for the Mongolian Zijian and the Mongolian Zixue, specializing in educating the children of the Mongolian and Han magnates.
Outside of Hallym Temple, there are:Jixian Temple, established in 1285 to manage Taoist affairs; It manages Buddhist affairs and the Xuanzheng Yuan in the Tibetan region
In short, the system of the Yuan Dynasty was not a direct copy of the Han system as people imagined, but a synthesis of Mongolian traditions, the old Jin Dynasty system, the Han system, Central Asian customs and other systems. But although the system of the Yuan Dynasty seems to be relatively comprehensive, it actually has a lot of loopholes, such as ——
The rulers of the Yuan Dynasty were essentially isolated from the people at the bottom; The independence of the locality, the king, and the ten thousand households is very strong, and the Yuan Dynasty cannot achieve the highest centralization
As a result, the Yuan Dynasty was driven back to the grassland by Zhu Yuanzhang's Ming before they had time to upgrade their system.
It is said that the Northern Song Dynasty died in the redundant system, and the Yuan Dynasty also died in the system.
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The death of the Yuan Dynasty was roughly like this
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